A comparative analysis of non-discrimination law in Europe, 2021

A comparative analysis of non-discrimination law in Europe 2021: the 27 EU Member States, Albania, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Norway, Serbia, Turkey and the United Kingdom compared
Prepared by Isabelle Chopin and Catharina Germaine for the European network of legal experts in gender equality and non-discrimination.

Contents
INTRODUCTION 7
1 PROTECTED GROUNDS OF DISCRIMINATION 9
1.1 Introduction to the transposition of the anti-discrimination directives 9
1.2 Grounds of discrimination 10
1.2.1 Racial or ethnic origin 15
1.2.2 Religion or belief 18
1.2.3 Disability 21
1.2.4 Sexual orientation 32
1.2.5 Age 33
1.3 Assumed and associated discrimination 33
1.4 Multiple and intersectional discrimination 36
2 DEFINITIONS AND SCOPE 38
2.1 Forms of discrimination 38
2.1.1 Direct discrimination 38
2.1.2 Indirect discrimination 42
2.1.3 Harassment 45
2.1.4 Instructions to discriminate 50
2.2 Scope of discrimination 53
2.2.1 Personal scope 53
2.2.2 Material scope 54
3 EXCEPTIONS TO THE PRINCIPLE OF NON-DISCRIMINATION AND POSITIVE ACTION 69
3.1 Genuine and determining occupational requirements 69
3.2 Employers with an ethos based on religion or belief 71
3.3 Justification of differences of treatment on grounds of age 73
3.4 Armed forces and other specific occupations 76
3.5 Nationality 77
3.6 Public security, public order, criminal offences, protection of health and protection of the
rights and freedoms of others 78
3.7 Other exceptions 79
3.8 Positive action 79
4 ACCESS TO JUSTICE AND EFFECTIVE ENFORCEMENT 82
4.1 Judicial and administrative procedures 82
4.1.1 Available procedures 82
4.1.2 Obstacles to effective access to justice 84
4.2 Legal standing and associations 86
4.2.1 Entities which may engage in procedures 87
4.2.2 To engage ‘on behalf of’ 88
4.2.3 Collective redress 93
4.3 Burden of proof 95
4.4 Victimisation 97
4.5 Sanctions and remedies 100
5 EQUALITY BODIES 105
5.1 Grounds covered 106
5.2 Competencies of equality bodies 116
6 IMPLEMENTATION AND COMPLIANCE 122
6.1 Dissemination of information and social and civil dialogue 122
6.1.1 Dissemination of information and awareness-raising 122
6.1.2 Social and civil dialogue 123
6.2 Ensuring compliance 1246.2.1 Ensuring the compliance of national legislation 125
6.2.2 Ensuring compliance of contractual clauses and other rules 126
7 CONCLUSION 127
ANNEX 1. MAIN NATIONAL SPECIFIC ANTI-DISCRIMINATION LEGISLATION 129
ANNEX 2. SIGNATURE/RATIFICATION OF INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS 143